霍布斯《利维坦》笔记
本笔记整理自北京大学哲学系吴增定老师开设的《西方政治思想(现代)》课程。
人性的自然状态
自然状态 (the state of nature, natural condition)
近代政治哲学中的一个“思想实验”(包括理想国、包括亚里士多德,都是思想实验),指的是设想一种没有国家或公共权力(政府、法律、军队等)的状态。
来自于基督教(奥古斯丁)关于自然(还分堕落前——无辜和堕落后——原罪的状态)和恩典(被上帝拯救)的区分。霍布斯借鉴了这个区分,但完全去除了其中的宗教意味,恩典状态变成公民状态,即不是来自上帝,而是来自世俗国家。
自然状态一定是战争状态,因为每个人都追求力量与权力,却也没有足够的能力保全自己,同时也没有一个公共的机构来维持秩序。
人性的普遍倾向:对于权力或力量的无休止欲求
So that in the first place, I put for a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death. And the cause of this, is not always that a man hopes for a more intensive delight, than he has already attained to, or that he cannot be content with a moderate power: but because he cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he hath present, without the acquisition of more.
为了自保:如果不去提升 power,当别人的 power 超过你时,你就清零了。
自然状态为什么是战争状态?
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自然的平等与想象中的不平等
- 自然上的平等:身体,认识能力,以及在脆弱性和死亡面前的平等。
- 想象中的不平等或虚荣 (vanity):人的自我中心主义幻觉。
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自然状态中的三种动机
- 竞争、猜忌和荣耀
- 三种动机可以归结为两种基本欲望:自我保存(竞争和猜忌)(self-preservation)、虚荣或荣耀(vainglory,vanity)
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自然状态的后果:
- 一切人对一切人的战争
- 战争不仅表现为行动,而且也表现为意图。
- 战争状态的根本原因:缺乏作为公共权力或公共裁决者的国家。
附:囚徒困境与斗鸡博弈 (Chicken Game)
| 囚徒甲 \ 囚徒乙 | 供认 | 拒供 |
|---|---|---|
| 供认 | 2年,2年 | 0年,5年 |
| 拒供 | 5年,0年 | 0.5年,0.5年(帕累托最优) |
| 公鸡甲 \ 公鸡乙 | 前进 | 后退 |
|---|---|---|
| 前进 | -2 -2 | 1 -1 |
| 后退 | -1 1 | -1 -1 |
注:假设两只公鸡都选择前进,则菜鸡互啄,两败俱伤,收益各为-2;假设一只前进,另一只后退,则前进的一方收益为1,后退的一方颜面扫地,收益为-1;假设双方僵持不下,都不敢前进,因为无法过桥,那么收益各为-1。比起囚徒困境,这个模型增加了“虚荣”的因素。
自然状态与“占有性的个人主义”
“自然状态”的本质:个人主义。
个人在自然上不属于任何社会(国家、教会、行会、封建领主等),而是完全属于自己。
麦克福森(MacPherson):占有性的个人主义(Possessive Individualism),资本主义原始积累时的状态。
“自然状态”之假设的目的:
- 解决国家和教会之间的冲突: 只有个人是自然的、真实的,任何社会(国家、教会等)都是人为的。中世纪的冲突
- 思考现代国家的逻辑起点: 个人自然权利的让渡、契约和同意。
自然主义:做一切事情在道德上都是中立的,因为没有公共的评价标准。即 power = right(马基雅维利、斯宾诺莎)。但霍布斯又进行了区分,某些追求被认为是合理的,称为权利 (right),这些规范被称为 law。即 power > right,这被称为道德主义(康德),与自然主义相对。霍布斯兼具这两面。
自然权利与自然法的关系
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权利(right)和法(law=obligation)
- 权利:应得的要求(deserved claim)。
- 法:应该服从的又务或受到的约束。
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古代自然法传统
- 法(或义务)优先于权利。必须先讲奉献,才能讲获得什么。在我国甚至到七八十年代都在这一阶段。
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现代自然法(霍布斯对于自然法的革命)的本质精神:
- 权利优先于法。法是从权利中推导出来的,并且从属于权利。
- 比如我遵守国家法律,也是为了维护我自身。有时候为了维护 right,甚至可以打破 law。比如一个人犯了死罪,为了不被抓他可以逃跑。
- RIGHT, consisteth in liberty to do, or to forbear: whereas LAW, determineth, and bindeth to one of them: so that law, and right, differ as much, as obligation, and liberty; which in one and the same matter are inconsistent.
自然权利
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自然权利的起源:
- 人性就是趋利避害,尽最大程度保存自己的生命,并且避免死亡,这是正当的和理性的,是符合正确理性(right reason)的教导。
- For each man is drawn to desire that which is Good for him and to avoid what is bad for him, and most of all the greatest of natural evils, which is death. (On Citizen)
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自然权利的核心内容:保存自己的生命或自我保存。
- THE RIGHT OF NATURE, which writers commonly call jus naturale, is the liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgment, and reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto.
- 在自然状态中,一切能保全自身的力量都在自身的范围之内。
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自然权利的范围:无限的占有。
- 自然权利不仅意味着自我保存的权利,而且包含了使用一切手段保存自己生命的权利。
- 在自然状态中,只要人判断这样做能够维护自我保存的自然权利,那么他就可以做任何事情。因此,自然权利的范围是无限的,任何事物和他人都是我的所有物,都在我的自然权利范围内。(从逻辑上说,只有当一切世界上的别的东西都在你的掌控之中,你的自然权利才是最完整的。但人获得这种 right 事实上是绝无可能的,因此这种追求就是无限的。能做到这样的只有上帝,因此上帝不需要走出自然状态。)
- And because the condition of man, (as hath been declared in the precedent chapter) is a condition of war of every one against every one; in which case every one is govermed by his own reason; and there is nothing he can make use of, that may not be a help unto him, in preserving his life against his enemies; it followeth, that in such a condition, every man has a right to every thing; even to one another's body. And therefore, as long as this natural right of every man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to any man, (how strong or wise soever he be,) of living out the time, which nature ordinarily alloweth men to live.
- And this is what is meant by the common saying. Nature has given all things to all men. This is also the basis of the conclusion that in the state of nature the Measure of right [ius] is Interest [Utilitas]. (On Citizen)
摆脱自然状态的途径
摆脱自然状态、建立社会的动因
- 正面:追求自己的利益(自我保存);
- 反面:相互恐惧(对不可预料的暴死 (Violent Death) 的恐惧),以及理性的觉醒(因此对)。《圣经》“对上帝的畏惧是智慧的开端”/犹太谚语“人类一思考,上帝就发笑”
- The passions that incline men to peace, are fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them. And reason suggesteth convenicnt articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles, are they, which otherwise are called the Laws of Nature.
建立社会或联盟 (Allies) 的两种方式
- 武力 (force):出于对征服者或胜利者的恐惧;
- 同意 (consent):出于相互的恐惧。
- Allies are acquired either by force or by consent: by force when the victor in a conflict compels the vanquished to serve him by fear o f death, or by taking him prisoner, by consent, when an association for mutual assistance is made with the consent of both parties without violence. (On Citizen)
- 武力和同意是兼容的,二者的共同基础是恐惧。(恐惧的威慑作用>>理性的说服作用,甚至往往是在恐惧的支配下人才变得理性,这点和马基雅维利是一样的——人性是“犯贱”的,只有用恐惧才能让人发现自己什么也不是。)
自然法
有欲望,保存自己是合理的(自然权利),但绝对的自然权利权利又是无限的,因为绝对的保存自己需要有绝对的 Power,控制世界上的一切,于是会进入战争状态。故我们要对自然权利进行限定,称为自然法,规定了自然权利有哪些关键,应当保留;有哪些危害了别人的自然权利,应当舍弃。
含义:自然法是正确理性(right reason)的教导或指令。类似道德规范,因为它没有强力的约束力。
斯多亚学派就是古典的自然法传统。
康德坚决反对自然法就是道德法,因为他认为“实然”的状态不能推出“应然”的状态。
A LAW OF NATURE, (lex naturalis,) is a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved.
自然法的基本原则(第一自然法):和平
尽可能追求和平。如果和平不可得,则选择战争。(二者统一:自我保全最重要,不会为了和平牺牲自己。)对和平主义者,你愿不愿意牺牲自己去保全和平?如果愿意,那确实崇高;如果不愿意,那就是慷他人之慨获得自己的道德美名。
And consequently it is a precept, or general rule of reason, that every man, ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seck, and use, all helps, and advantages of war. The first branch of which rule, containeth the firsf, and fundamental law of nature; which is, to seck peace, and follow it The second, the sum of the right of nature; which is, by all means we can, to defend ourselves.
在自然状态中,和平是没有保障的(因为没有互相信任的基础,也没有更大的力量去保障)。
第二自然法:权利的放弃和转让,契约
人在别人也愿意这样做的条件下,放弃对一切事物的无限权利,以换取相互安全。
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人们为了和平,必须放弃对一切事物(包括他人)的权利,相互承认自我保存的自然权利。
- From this fundamental law of nature, by which men are commanded to cndeavour peace, is derived this second law; that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace, and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself.
- This is that law of the Gospel; whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that do ye to them. And that law of all men, guod tibi fieri non vis, alteri ne feceris.
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契约(contract)与协议(agreement)
- 契约:权利的相互转让。
- 协议:一方面先转让,另一方面后转让。
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权利(自由)和义务(契约)的对称性。
- 契约意味着放弃了某些权利,相应地形成了某种义务或约束。不对称意味着不公正。
- Obligation begins where liberty ends.
- 广义的契约就是社会生活——人与人的关系总是由放弃、转让构成的。
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契约的条件:理性的意志和明确的语言。
- 所以,人不能与动物达成契约或协议。也不能直接跟未成年人和心智不正常者订立契约。
- 人不能直接跟上帝订立契约(因为上帝没什么需要的),只能通过上帝的代理人(亚伯拉罕、摩西和耶稣等)订立契约。
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契约与恐惧:出于恐惧达成的契约或协议是是有效的(这与现在法律的精神是不相符的)
- 因为这是理性的
- Covenants entered into by fear, in the condition of mere nature, are obligatory. For example, if I covenant to pay a ransom, or service for my life, to an cnemy; I am bound by it. For it is a contract, wherein one receiveth the benefit of life; the other is to receive money, or service for it; and consequently, where no other law (as in the condition, of mere nature) forbiddeth the performance, the covenant is valid.
- 现在一般还是认为契约的前提是自由意志。自由意志和必然性是基督教神学家讨论的话题,霍布斯则认为这些都是陈词滥调,觉得一切都应该是“理性的斟酌”。当然现在的这种认为“契约的前提是自由意志”不再是基于神学,而是基于洛克的思想。这同时也更符合我们的道德直觉。
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自然状态中契约的脆弱性
- 没有武力保护的契约是一纸空文。(A covenant not to defend myself from force, by force, is always void.)
- 对于契约和协议来说,最重要的是相互信任。但是,这恰恰是自然状态中所缺乏的。
- 在自然状态中,由于缺乏公共权力,人与人相互恐惧、猜疑,缺乏相互信任,契约是没有约束力的。
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前约使后约无效
- 即不能随便违约,改变契约需要所有参与人同意
- A former covenant, makes void a later. For a man that hath passed away his right to onc man to-day, hath it not to pass tomorrow to another: and therefore the later promise passeth no right, but is null.
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契约与自我保存
- 契约不能包含损害和否定立约者的自我保存(生命)的内容,否则就是无效的。
- For though a man may covenant thus, unless I do so, or so, kill me; he cannot covenant thus. unless I do so, or so, I will not resist you, when you come to kill me. For man by nature chooseth the lesser evil, which is danger of death in resisting; rather than the greater, which is certain and present death in not resisting.
- 任何人都没有控告自己的义务
- A covenant to accuse oneself, without assurance of pardon, is likewise invalid. For in the condition of nature, where every man is judge, there is no place for accusation: and in the civil state, the accusation is followed with punishment; which being force, a man is not obliged not to resist. The same is also true, of the accusation of those, by whose condemnation a man falls into misery; as of a father, wife, or benefactor.
- 现代法律的基本原则:人没有自证其罪的义务(“坦白从宽”是不合理的,我国在80年代以后就不是这样了);也没有证明其亲人(夫妻、父母和子女)之罪的义务。其基础就是人的自我保存的自然权利。
其他自然法
- 第三自然法:正义(信守契约)
- 第四自然法:感恩
- 第五自然法:合群(社会性)
- 第六自然法:宽恕
- 第七自然法:反对报复(既往不咎)
- 第八自然法:禁止侮辱(尊重)
- 第九自然法:平等
- 第十自然法:谦逊
附加的自然法(通常的道德要求):
- 一视同仁(公道)
- 无法分割的东西应该共享
- 无法共享的东西应该轮流使用或抽签
- 长子继承
- 和平的仲裁者拥有豁免权
- 出现争议时应该听从第三方即公断人。
- 每个人不应该是自身争议的裁决者
- 第三方裁决者不应从某一方的胜利中获利,
关于自然法的总结
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自然法作为理性的指令:自我保存(生命)和安全
- 理性:知道怎么做对自己是有利的,即自我保存是有利的,于是安全是有利的。
- All these natural percepts are derived from just one dictate of reason, that presses on us our own preservation and security. (On Citizen)
- 一言以蔽之:你不想要别人这样对你,就不要这样对别人。
- 不主张翻译为“己所不欲,勿施于人”。这在儒家语境中属于最高的道德,而在霍布斯这属于底线伦理(做到不是圣贤,做不到是过分的)。
- Do not do to another what you would not have done to you.
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自然法是永恒的道德法(moral law)
- The laws of nature are immutable and eternal; for injustice, ingratitude, arrogance, pride, iniquity, acception of persons, and the rest, can never be made lawful. For it can never be that war shall preserve life, and peace destroy it.
- 并不是说自然权利和自然法能让人走出自然状态。自然法是没有力量的。需要通过立约来授权、让渡、建立国家。
- 自然法解决的是什么样的行为是理性的,却不能独自解决如何使遵守自然法成为安全的行为。
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自然权利和自然法学说仍然属于自然哲学的领域。
- 机械论的前提:人的自然本性是力量的运动
- 处于自然状态是因为缺乏作为公共权力的国家。
国家的建立
建立国家的困难与途径
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从自然状态到公民状态(civil condition)的断裂:
- 自然状态与公民状态的区别:有没有作为公共权力的国家
- 即使人们认识到和平和契约等自然法,但并没有因此摆脱自然状态(契约只是开端,并不直接意味着国家的建立。比如一群人建立契约要建立一个国家,但这作为一个契约需要国家来保障,而此时还不存在国家)
- 这否定了亚里士多德的想法:亚里士多德认为国家是自然形成的,从家庭,到村落,到部落,自然形成了国家
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从自然状态到公民状态的途径不是契约等自然法,而是授权与代表(这些事实的行为)。
- 比如要事实上给某人钱,让他能购买枪炮,建立军队和警察等。
- 当然,虽然自然法不直接创造国家,但它为人们如何相互立约、授权主权者提供了理性根据。
代表与授权
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人格:自然人格与人为人格或虚拟人格
- 人格(person):言辞和行为的代表。
- A PERSON, is he, whose words or actions are considered, either as his own, or as representing the words or actions of another man, or of any other thing to whom they are attributed, whether truly or by fiction.
- 自然人格与人为人格(虚拟人格)
- When they are considered as his own, then is he called a natural person: and when they are considered as representing the words and actions of another, then is he a feigned or artificial person.
- 自然人格:有身体,有四肢
- 人为人格:是一个北大学生... 范围极广
- 以律师为例:要吃喝玩乐(自然人格);代理别人的人为人格,帮别人打官司(人为人格)
- 演员的人为人格则更加明显:一直在演别人
- 人格(person):言辞和行为的代表。
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授权 (authorization) 与代表 (representation)
- 自然人格(投权者或作者) → 人为人格(代表、被授权者、代理人)
- Of persons artificial, some have their words and actions owned by those whom they represent. And then the person is the actor, and he that owneth his words and actions, is the AUTHOR: in which case the actor acteth by authority.
- 现在的民主与古希腊的民主的最大区别是不再是全民直接参与,而是代议制。因为古希腊的城邦很小,可以承担全民参与。如亚里士多德认为国家不能太大,否则必然会成为家族的专制(因为不可能组织全民参与)。一直到卢梭,主流的思想都是共和国应该小而精。
- 如美国建国时,就陷入了论战。联邦党人认为如果国家太散,容易被英法逐个击破,必须建立一个统一的大国。但大国容易被人自然而然地认为必须君主制,汉密尔顿一开始也是这样打算的。
- 有契约,有授权的具体行为后,就有了主权者(如北大校长、公司法人)。主权者掌握公共权力,并代表你。个人没有 right 来反抗国家,因为国家代表你,你不能自己打脸。
- 洛克:人民可以收回授权(有革命的权利)。但霍布斯则认为,如果授权可以收回,那我们永远停留在自然状态。
- 代理人所订立的契约对于授权者来说也是有同样约束力的。
- From hence it followeth, that when the actor maketh a covenant by authority, he bindeth thereby the author, no less than if he had made it himself; and no less subjecteth him to all the consequences of the same.
- 自然人格(投权者或作者) → 人为人格(代表、被授权者、代理人)
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通过授权和代表形成一个统一的人为人格
- 将彼此独立的个人意志转化为一个可以统一行动的政治人格。
- A multitude of men, are made one person, when they are by one man, or one person, represented; so that it be done with the consent of every one of that multitude in particular. For it is the unity of the representer, not the unity of the represented, that maketh the person one. And it is the representer that beareth the person, and but one person: and unity, cannot otherwise be understood in multitude.
- 原来是一群彼此独立、没有统一人格的个人(multitude);通过共同授权,他们构成了一个统一的政治人格(one person),也就是国家(commonwealth)。
国家的起源
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根本原因:自然法(道德[契约])的脆弱性
- 自然法(道德[契约])在自然状态中没有强制性的约束力
- 没有执行它的力量,无法使人因为恐惧而服从(人因为恐惧而理性)。
- For the laws of nature (as justice, equity, modesty, mercy, and (in sum)doing to others, as we would be done to,) of themselves, without the terror of some power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our natural passions, that carry us to partiality, pride, revenge, and the like. And covenants, without the sword, are but words, and of no strength to secure a man at all. Therefore notwithstanding the laws of nature (which every one hath then kept, when he has the will to keep them, when he can do it safely)if there be no power erected, or not great enough for our security; every man will, and may lawfully rely on his own strength and art, for caution against all other men.
- 自然法必须有执行的力量,使得人出于对这种力量的恐惧而服从。
- But something more is needed, an element of fear, to prevent an accord on peace and mutual assistance for a common good from collapsing in discord when a private good subsequently comes into conflict with the common good. (On Citizen)
- 自然法(道德[契约])在自然状态中没有强制性的约束力
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国家不是来自于人的自然本性
- 亚里士多德的目的论(teleology):城邦是人的自然本性(human nature)的内在和终极目的。一个真正的人就是一个良好城邦的公民。(就像手只有在一个健康的身体里才是一只完整的手)
- 霍布斯对亚里士多德的批评:亚里士多德说的“天生政治动物”只合蜜蜂等动物,而不适合人。因为蜜蜂的个人利益(private good)与公共利益(common good)是一致的,而人不是(因为无休止地追求 power)。
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结论:
- 建立国家的原因是外在于人的自然本性的:
- (1)恐惧使人放弃虚荣等非理性的激情,回归理性,认识到自然法(也就是和平)对于自我保存的重要性。
- (2)国家是人为地建立的。
补充:霍布斯作为现代政治思想的代表,与古代政治思想最大的区别在于:政治权利的正当性是来源于人民/被统治者的同意(同意在契约这一步建立)。而古代则是:劳心者治人,劳力者治于人 / 人的原罪需要国家权力的矫正,认为统治天经地义。
补充:主权者可能是:
- 一个人(君主制)
- 多个人(会议制)
- 少数人(贵族制)
- 多数人(民主制)
霍布斯支持君主制,但不是因为它代表某种“最佳政体”,而只是因为它更高效。
与费尔漠这样的传统保皇派不同。费尔漠认为君权神授(divine kingship),授权者是上帝,统治天经地义。这是洛克所着重批评的(《政府论》上卷)。这也使得《利维坦》成为禁书,因为权力不是来源于最高的上帝,而是来源于底层的人民,而且甚至隐含了权力是可以被收回的。
补充:人真的会自愿授权吗?见下“建立国家的途径”
国家(commonwealth)的本质
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国家的建立:同意与授权
- 国家是超越个人意志之上的统一意志或人格,在涉及公共和平与安全(common peace and safety)的事务上代表个人意志。
- The only way to erect such a common power...is, to confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills, by plurality of voices, unto one will: which is as much as to say, to appoint one man, or assembly of men, to bear their person; and every one to own, and acknowledge himself to be author of whatsoever he that so beareth their person, shall act, or cause to be acted, in those things which concern the common peace and safety; and therein to submit their wills, every one to his will, and their judgments, to his judgment.
- [卢梭的“特殊意志”(particular will)与“公意”或“普遍意志”(general will)的区分。]
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授权与权利的转让
- This is more than consent, or concord; it is a real unity of them all, in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my right of governing myself, to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition, that thou give up thy right to him, and authorize all his actions in like manner.
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国家的本质:统一意志、人为人格或公民人格(civil person)
- This done, the multitude so united in one person, is called a COMMONWEALTH, in Latin CIVITAS. This is the gencration of that great LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speak more reverently) of that Mortal God, to which we owe under the Immortal God, our peace and defence.
- For by this authority, given him by every particular man in the commonwealth, he hath the use of so much power and strength conferred on him, that by terror thercof, he is enabled to conform the wills of them all, to peace at home, and mutual aid against their cnemies abroad.
- And in him consisteth the essence of the commonwealth; which (to definc it. is onc person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants one with another, have made themselves every onc the author, to the cnd he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their peace and common.
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主权者、主权性的权力和臣民
- And he that carricth this person, is called SOVEREIGN, and said to have sovereign power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT.
建立国家的途径
事实上,历史上没有任何一个国家是真正通过“坐下来谈判”建立的;因为如果都能坐下来谈判了,那也没有必要去建立国家了。
- 杰斐逊(第三任美国总统,联邦党人,洛克主义者):
- “如果人都是天使,那就不需要国家。”(符合霍布斯思想)
- “如果统治这个国家的人都是天使,那就不需要约束那些掌握权力的人了。”(符合洛克思想,有限政府和权力制衡)
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自然与约定
- 自然的(natural)国家:纯粹的获取(aquisition)或暴力(force)。
- 父权制(paternal):家庭的延伸与扩大;(不是“君君臣臣父父子子”,而是因为有了巨大的 power 而不得不服从)
- 专制(despotic):战争中的征服;
- 政治性的或按约建立的国家(political or by institution) 这引发了很多争论——它真的存在吗?
- 自然的(natural)国家:纯粹的获取(aquisition)或暴力(force)。
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共同点:被统治者的同意。
- 自然国家的统治基础是臣民对于主权者的恐惧;政治国家的统治基础是公民相互之间的恐惧。但是,二者并没有本质的区别,最终都是来自于被统治者的同意(consent)。
- The attaining to this sovereign power, is by two ways. One, by natural force; as when a man maketh his children, to submit themselves, and their children to his government, as being able to destroy them if they refuse; or by war subdueth his enemies to his will, giving them their lives on that condition. The other, is when men agree amongst themselves, to submit to some man, or assembly of men, voluntarily, on confidence to be protected by him against all others. This latter, may be called a political commonwealth, or commonwealth by institution; and the former, a commonwealth by acquisition. And first, I shall speak of a commonwealth by institution.
- 区分两类国家(第20章):
- 按约建立的国家(commonwealth by institution):人们因为彼此恐惧,而共同授权一个主权者。
- 通过获取形成的国家(commonwealth by acquisition):人们因为恐惧征服者,为了保全生命而向其服从并授权。
主权者的权利
霍布斯是绝对主义(任何私人和组织不能制约主权,主权只能掌握在一个人/组织手里,不能有他人来分享,否则天下大乱。用韦伯的话来说,国家是“暴力的合法垄断者”。虽然有君主/主权者,但只是功能性的,去代表它)
——但不是专制主义(国家是君主及自己家族的私有财产)。如果主权者受到制约,那那个制约者才是真正的主权者。比如传统的国家受教会制约,那就不能说它有完全的主权。
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主权者的绝对权力的正当性(权利)
- 什么叫主权(sovereignty or the sovereign power)?
- 最高、绝对的(不可违反,不可制约,不可分割)的权力。
- 基督教上帝概念的政治化和世俗化:在一定的意义上是对安瑟伦的“上帝存在的本体论证明”(ontological argument of God's existence)的改写:
- 上帝是无与伦比地完美,它不可能不存在,因此一定存在。(如果上帝不存在,那就不完美)
- 澄清:绝对主义不是专制主义(despotism)。专制主义预设的是作为自然人的君主。绝对主义预设的是作为“法人”的主权者。
- 个人没有权利反抗国家或主权者;
- 原因:国家作为一种意志来自于个人权利的让渡的意愿和行动,因此代表了个人的意志,反抗国家或主权者就等于是反抗自己。
- Finally, from the fact that cach one o fthe citizens has subjected his will to the wil of the holder of sovereign power in the commonwealth in such a way that he cannot use his own strength against him, it clearly follows that no action on the part o f the sovereign is liable to punishment. For as by nature no one can punish him if he does not have enough strength to do it, so by right no one can punish him, if he does not have the strength by right to do so.
- 国家为了维护公共和平和安全所必需拥有的权力(符合权利的权力或正当的权力):司法权,战争权,公共意见或舆论审查等。
- From what has been said it is perfectly clear that in every complete commonwealth (i.e, a commonwealth in which no citizen has the Right to use his strength at his own discretion to protect himself, or in which the right of the private word is excluded), there is somewhere a sovereign power, the greatest power that men can confer, greater than any power that an individual can have over himself. The greatest power that men can transfer to a man we call ABSOLUTE power.
- 什么叫主权(sovereignty or the sovereign power)?
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国家或主权者不受公民法(civil law)的约束
- 原因:公民法是由国家制定的,是国家的意志或主权者的命令的体现。没有国家就没有公民法。
- 但是,国家受自然法约束。不能凌驾于和平与安全。
- 在国家建立之前,没有私有财产。财产作为一种权利是国家及其法律建立了之后才有的。
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国家与人的类比
- 如果把国家比作一个人,那么主权者就不是人的大脑,而是人的心灵,或者更确切地说,是心灵的意志。
- 霍布斯的言外之意:主权者的本质以及国家统治的正当性基础是意志(个人的、自愿的同意),而不是像古典政治哲学家所的那样是理性或智慧(如柏拉图的哲学家王)。
- Almost everyone who mates the comparison of commonwealth and citizen with the body and its members says that the holder o f sovereign power in the commonwealth is to the whole commonwealth what the head is to the whole man. But it appears from what has been said that the recipient o f such power(whether Man or council) has the relation to the commonwealth not of the head but of the soul. Because man has a soul, he has a will [voiuntas], that is, he can assent [velle] and refuse [nolle]; similarly a commonwealth has a will, and can assent and refuse through the holder of sovereign power, and only so.